INTRODUCTION

At the threshold of the twenty first century, the world is confronted with two conflicting situations that relate to the survival and well being of human kind - economic and scientific advances providing comfort for our living and depleting natural resources and degradation of environment threatens the very survival of human kind. Survival and development are necessarily linked with the environmental management. Over exploitation of natural resources and degradation of environment has brought the planet earth at the verge of losing its balance. The increase in the scale of impact of human activities on the earth together with our increased understanding of ecological processes are indicative of the fact that the environment can no longer be taken for granted and viewed as a relatively stable background factor. The green house effect, the depletion of the ozone layer and the increasing air pollution are posing a threat so far unquantified to human life. The dumping of hazardous wastes and land based sources of pollution present a similar threat to the oceans while on land we are destroying a large area of tropical forest every year and more than a 100 species of wild plants and animals are being lost forever each day.

The humanity is now faced by a range of environmental problems that are global in the strong sense that they affect everyone and can only be effectively managed on the basis of cooperation between all. These include controlling the emission of green house gases and the factors affecting climate change, protecting the ozone layer, safe guarding biodiversity, protecting special regions such as Antarctica or the Amazon, managing the tropical forests and sea bed, and protecting the high seas.

Sustainable development has therefore assumed a global dimension. Managing the environment demands high levels of cooperation and policy coordination. Collective environmental management poses a severe problem and is a sensitive challenge because it involves the creation of rules, and institutions that embody notions of shared responsibilities and shared duties, that impinge very heavily on the domestic structures and organizations.

It was in 1972 when the global concern for environment protection found expression for the first time through the United Nations conference on 'Environment and development '. It articulated the concept of sustainable development recognizing that the environment and development are extricably interconnected.

United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) since 1974 focused attention on emerging environmental issues stressing on the impact of quality of environment on people and society which increased environmental monitoring. But foundation for an integrated preventive approach to environmental protection was laid through the epoch making report " Our Common Future" of the World Commission on Environment and Development in 1987 which emphasized the importance of environmental protection for sustainable development. This led industry, government and public seeking solutions to environmental problems. Initially these efforts resulted in model regulations that attempted to stop pollution at the discharge pipe. This command and control approach focused on end-of-pipe solutions. Beginning of 1980 had seen a growing recognition that environmental problems were interrelated and required interdisciplinary approach involving purchase, production and marketing to effect cleaner production. At the same time global environmental problems such as global warming, ozone layer depletion gave the environmental concern a global perspective and led to emergence of international efforts to environmental protection.

The Business charter on sustainable development brought out by the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) in 1990 enunciated 16 principles for environmental management which were adopted by the World Industry Conference on Environment Management in 1991. But it was the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, held at Rio in June 1992 which triggered a world-wide awakening on the importance of preservation of environment and prevention of degradation to make the earth a safe place to live. The goal of establishing a new and equitable global partnership was set through the Rio Declaration and adoption of Agenda 21. It is a blue print for action and for creation of new levels of cooperation among the countries, key sectors of societies and people, working towards international agreements which respect the interests of all, and protect the integrity of the global environmental and developmental systems. To realize the objectives enunciated in different chapters of agenda 21 the countries evolved regulatory framework. This resulted in proliferation of environment-related statutory and regulatory requirements and a growing number of product-related environmental standards.

To appreciate these stringent requirements it must be seen how various human activities result in degradation of environment. Organizations, whether industrial, commercial or service as a result of their network of activities and processes provide product or service to customers to satisfy their stated or implied needs and intangible by-products such as wastes, emissions, depletion of natural resources (air, energy, land, water). These results impinge on the environment, either immediately, during use, or after disposal. The ever increasing complexity and continual expansion of activities and processes have resulted in increased environmental risks and damage and relentless pressures on industry. Of late industry has realized that the current patterns of production and consumption are unsustainable and in order to stay in business, they need to increasingly integrate environmental considerations into their business strategies and long term planning. Also there has been a gradual shift from a position of limiting pollution and waste in compliance with government regulations towards one of preventing pollution and waste. These brought at the centre stage of environment and development the environment management system to minimize the impact of economic activities on environment. ISO 14000 series (See Box 2) of international standards on environmental management system has now become sine qua non for environmental protection around the world.

2. DEVELOPMENT OF ISO 9000 SERIES

It was realized that regulatory mechanism for controlling pollution helps but there are transnational influence which they may not be in a position to either influence or control. The Bhopal chemical disaster, Chernobyl radiation releases, Exxon Valdez oil spills over the coast of Alaska further highlighted the global concern about the industry's impact on the environment and aroused worldwide interest for evolving new means to combat pollution and protect the environment. The regulations and regulatory standards varied from country to country and they were found wanting to solve global issues. This necessitated global approach to environmental protection. The Rio declaration on the concept of Sustainable Development was a testimony of the global concern. The World Trade Organization (WTO) too generated interest in international voluntary environment standards as instruments for facilitating international trade and reducing non-tariff barriers. Coupled with all this was the advent of ISO 9000 series of quality management system standards which was adopted by over 100 countries and about 200 000 certificates have been issued worldwide. This widespread acceptance of ISO 9000 in a short span of time as a management tool for managing quality sent positive signals that environmental issues can also be solved by adopting environmental management systems.

To promote a systematic and structured approach to environmental management, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) decided to evolve international criteria for environmental management systems (EMS) . The aim of this initiative was :

a) to provide a basis for harmonization of existing standards as well as future endeavours in order to facilitate international trade;
b) to support environmental protection in balance with socio-economic needs' by providing organizations with a tool to achieve and measure improvement in environmental performance.

In 1991 ISO established a Strategic Advisory Group on Environment (SAGE) to make recommendations regarding the need for international standards on environmental management system. The SAGE after studying various national standards, regulations and international conventions on EMS, recommended formation of an ISO technical committee in 1993 dedicated to developing uniform international standard on environmental management systems. Accordingly, a technical committee (ISO/TC/207) on Environmental Management was set up in 1993 to develop ISO 14000 series of international standards on environmental management systems over a wide range of topics related to environmental management and to provide a systems approach to the management of environmental issues.

This committee has established six subcommittees and a working group to accomplish the task of elaboration of International Standards on environmental management systems. These are:

a) ISO /TC207/SC 1 Environmental management systems
b) ISO /TC207/SC 2 Environmental auditing
c) ISO /TC207/SC 3 Environmental labelling
d) ISO /TC207/SC 4 Environmental performance evaluation
e) ISO /TC207/SC 5 Life cycle assessment
f) ISO /TC207/SC 6 Terms and definition
g) ISO /TC 207/WG1 Environmental aspects of product standards

These committees consist of members drawn from a number of countries and the hopes and concerns they bring to these committees are shaped to a large degree by the priorities of the nations they represent. However there is also a strong sense of common purpose which allows them to work together and develop international standards. ISO has national standards bodies as members from over 118 countries. All standards developed by ISO are voluntary consensus standards and are results of the inputs of diverse interests from across the globe. The International Standards are evolved through technical committees represented by experts from member countries and specialized international agencies. A draft on a subject is deliberated upon by the committees for adequacy to meet the global needs. The central theme in the elaboration of international standards is the consensus principle. A consensus is reached through deliberations and mutual understanding which facilitates implementation of international standards.

The ISO 14000 series of standards were brought out in 1996. These standards are designed to a more environmentally sensitive industrial culture, which will result in more efficient use of raw material and waste material, reduction of emission and increase investment in pollution control abatement and cleaner technologies. The development of ISO 14000 series is based on the well-defined principles (See Box1) of management. The These standards encompassing a full range of issues including those with strategic and competitive implications are intended to provide organizations with the elements of an effective environmental management system which can be integrated with other management requirements to assist organizations to achieve environmental and developmental goals. These standards specify the core elements of an environmental management system to support environmental protection in balance with socio-economic needs.

It is an evolving series of generic environmental management standards that provides enterprise's management with the structure for managing aspects having environmental impacts. Environmental management, however, as the totality of environment-related activities of an organization involving all aspects within the framework of an environmental management system, has only recently begun to meet with keener interest. Environmental management concentrates on the fulfillment of external and internal environmental requirements both by product or service and by incidental outputs to ensure" sustainable development".

Box1

3. STRUCTURE OF ISO 9000 SERIES

The importance of the stakes involved and the generic nature of the international requirements covered, high expectations have been placed in the ISO 14000 series standards. These standards can be classified into two categories based on their focus:

a) Organization or process standards - These include:
i) environmental management system (EMS),
ii) environmental auditing (EA), and
iii) environmental performance evaluation (EPE); and
b) Product-oriented standard- These include:
i) life-cycle assessment (LCA),
ii) environmental labelling (EL), and
iii) environmental aspects in product standards (EAPS).
The nucleus of ISO 14000 series of international standards is ISO 14001 the requirements for EMS and in the first orbit is ISO 14004 the guideline standard. The other standards in the series are supporting systems ( See Fig. 1).

REQUIREMENT STANDARD

ISO 14001 Environmental Management Systems- Specification with guidance for use- This standard specifies the basic elements (See Fig 2) for an EMS which can be audited for conformance. It is the only standard in the series against which an organization's EMS could be certified. Implementation of ISO 14001 requires the organization to specify its policy, identify the environmental aspects, set objectives and targets and comply with appropriate legislation. This standard thus enables an organization to identify specific aspects, whether actual or potential that adversely affects the environment, and corrective and preventive measures for their control.

This standard also requires an organization to review the system and continually improve the performance of their products, services and operations as measured by their environmental impact. This is accomplished by regular environmental audits conducted to evaluate how effectively environmental issues are being managed, and to identify opportunities for improvement.

The standard encourages implementation of Best Available Technology (BAT) and Occupational Safety and Health management into the EMS but does not require their integration. This approach of commitment and implementation parallels the quality movement and the ISO 9000 quality standards. Although adoption of the standard does not guarantee environmental compliance, it is believed that companies that implement these commitments will improve environmental performance. In other words, a company says "what it will do, then does what it has said".

ISO 14001 does not specify absolute requirements for environmental performance, but calls for a commitment in the environmental policy to prevention of pollution and continual improvement, and compliance to regulatory legislations. This is a graduating system is designed to meet local regulatory requirements and set a path for continual improvement. The adoption of this standard therefore does not necessarily imply same level of compliance by all enterprises opting for EMS but needs a formal commitment to EMS and thus would improve the environmental performance.

GUIDELINE STANDARD

ISO 14004 Environmental Management Systems- General guidelines on principles, systems and supporting techniques- This provides general guidance for establishing the Environmental Management Systems based on a set of guiding principles that should be adopted by an organization. These principles require the organization to:

a) define and adopt an environmental policy;
b) ensure organizational commitment to environmental improvement;
c) formulate a plan with objectives and targets to fulfill the environmental policy;
d) implement the plan by developing the capabilities and resources to achieve the environmental policy, objectives, and targets;
e) measure, monitor, and evaluate environmental performance; and
f) review periodically and institute mechanism for continual improvement.

SUPPORTING SYSTEMS

Environmental Auditing (ISO 14010, ISO 14011 and ISO 14012)

An environmental management system audit is defined as the "systematic, documented verification process of objectively obtaining and evaluating audit evidence to determine whether specified environmental activities, processes, conditions, management systems, or information about these matters conform with audit criteria, and communicating the results of this process to the client." The guiding principles for environmental audits include:

a) basing the audit on objectives defined and drawing inferences based on analysis. Interpretation and documentation of appropriate information;
b) utilizing an audit team that is independent of the activities they audit and utilizing an auditor who meets the specified qualification criteria;
c) exercise of due professional care by the auditor to maintain confidentiality and adequate quality assurance;
d) use of procedures for conducting the audit in an objective and systematic manner;
e) developing audit criteria, evidence, and findings;
f) ensuring that process provides the desired level of confidence in the reliability of the audit findings and conclusions; and
g) providing an adequate report of findings.

ISO 14010 provides guidance on general principles for conducting environmental audits, ISO 14011 elaborates the framework for the conduct of audit to ascertain if the organization is doing what it says it will do and whether the EMS conforms to ISO 14001? On the other hand ISO 14012 provides guidance on auditor qualification criteria including education, training, work experience, personal attributes and skills, maintenance of competency and due diligence.

Environmental Labelling Standards (ISO 14020, ISO 14025)

ISO 14024 is a multiple criteria based voluntary environmental labelling standard that requires third party verification, designed to reduce burdens on account of diverse multiple labelling. The existing eco-labelling schemes based on government initiatives aim at influencing customer decisions to select environmentally friendly products but they lack of application of uniform criteria. These are therefore difficult to comply with and have potential to create trade barriers. The coverage of this standard is broad and it includes goods or services for consumer, commercial, and industrial purpose.

Guiding principles and practices for third-party environmental labelling programmes include:

a) Standards and criteria applicable to environmental labels must be developed through a consensus process, and the programme must be voluntary,
b) A product can be considered for an environmental label if it complies with relevant environmental regulations of the country in which it is manufactured and marketed.
c) Environmental labelling criteria should incorporate a life cycle approach to assessment.
d) Environmental labelling programmes should be selective and should distinguish leading products from alternatives
e) The product criteria developed by the certification agency should be periodically reviewed to account for new development or technologies.
f) There should be consultation with stakeholders in the selection of criteria and product categories, and the result should be made public.
g) The process should be transparent and information on criteria, certification and award procedures, periodic revision of criteria, and demonstration that the funding sources for the programme do not create conflicts of interest or undue influence.
h) Environmental labelling programmes should not create artificial trade barriers or discriminate in the treatment of domestic and foreign products;
i) The labelling programmes should use scientific and reproducible methodology to assess product's environmental impact;
j) Labelling programmes should be accessible, objective and affordable.

The requirements for awarding a label are divided into general rules that apply to all products and applications, and to product criteria that set requirements for each product category. These are the only criteria that may be considered as a basis for awarding the label. The certification agency awards the label when satisfied that the applicant is in compliance with the specific product criteria for the product category. The certification agency must maintain a publicly available list of products currently licensed to carry the label.

When the label has been awarded, it is the responsibility of the certification agency to take any necessary steps to ensure ongoing compliance with the product criteria. The certification agency will require the licensee to take corrective action if compliance monitoring indicates that compliance is not being maintained.

Environmental Performance Standards (ISO 14030)

The Environmental Performance Evaluation (EPE) is an important on going internal management tool. It is an internal management process that uses environmental indicators to compare an organization's past and present environmental performance with its environmental objectives, targets or other intended levels of environmental performance. This process assists management to measure, analyze, assess, report and communicate an organization's environmental performance over time and to determine necessary actions.

The Environmental Performance Evaluation standard is based on Edward Deming's PDCA cycle- Plan (P), Do (D), Check (C) and Act (A). Planning an EPE (P) involves management considerations and selecting environmental indicators before evaluating environmental performance (D) and reviewing and improving EPE (C). EPE process involves actions taken (A) to improve the systems, operations, processes and environmental performance.

The standard provides guidelines on identification and selection of environmental indicators. There are two types of environmental indicators:

1) Environmental Performance indicators (EPI)-This includes:

a) the people, practices and procedures at all levels of the organization,
b) the design, operations and maintenance of and supply to and delivery from organizations physical facilities and equipment,
c) the materials, energy, products, services, waste and emissions related to organizations operations and activities.

2) Environmental condition indicators (ECI) -These are used to describe the condition of the environment in relation to organization.

Life cycle assessment (ISO 14040)

ISO 14040 provides guidelines for incorporating Life cycle assessment (LCA) into environmental management programmes. LCA is defined as compilation and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and the potential environmental impacts of a product system throughout its life cycle (Cradle-to-grave). It is thus a systematic set of procedures for compiling and examining the inputs and outputs of materials and energy and the associated environmental impacts directly attributable to the functioning of a product or service system throughout its life cycle, from the acquisition of raw materials through final disposal. LCA is done so that a complete picture of the environmental impacts throughout the life time of products and services can be developed. This provides significantly more information than does evaluating the impact from the manufacturing process alone; it also provides a systematic way to evaluate the costs and benefits associated with the product or service changes at various points in their life cycle.

The standard covers the following three phase of LCA:

1) establishing goals and the scope of the assessment
2) conducting the inventory analysis
3) conducting the impact of assessment and improvement assessment.

Impact assessment has three elements: classification, characterization, and evaluation. The goals of the LCA study should include the reasons for carrying out the study, the intended applications, the intended audience, the initial data, quality objectives, and the type of critical review that will be conducted for the LCA. The scope should include background information for the product or service being evaluated, boundaries of the study, method of impact assessment, data requirements, assumptions, and limitations of the study.

The standard recognizes that there is no single method to conduct LCAs, and it allows organizations flexibility to select suitable methods. But it is important that the assessment should be systematic, understandable, and transparent. The results should not be reduced to a simple overall conclusion, but they should reflect the complexities and trade-offs inherent in the process. The results of the LCA must be reported to the intended audience and to interested third parties. The report should cover the goals and scope of the study, the methods employed, the results and conclusions and recommendations.

Environmental Terms and Definitions (ISO 14050)

The successful operation of environmental management system requires correct understanding of meaning of terms used by all stake holders in a similar manner. Communication is important in implementation and operation of environmental management system. This communication would be most effective if there is a common understanding of the terms used. Many environmental terms and definitions are the result of recently developed process. The gradual evolution of these environmental concepts invariably means that environmental terminology will continue to develop.

Environmental Aspect in Product Standard (ISO 14060)

the environmental impacts of products are receiving attention worldwide. They are therefore being addressed in the product standards prepared by international, regional and national standards bodies. ISO 14060 provides general guidelines that should be taken into account when developing standards to reduce environmental effects without sacrificing the intended performance of the product or service. It is intended to be used by standard writing organizations. While recognizing the complexity of identifying and establishing environmental effects from products and services throughout their life cycle, the standard provides that environmental effects should be balanced against factors that include product function, performance, safety and health, cost, marketability and quality. The guide also recognizes that environmental provisions in product standards must be reviewed and changed to reflect innovation and technology, but not so frequently that innovation, productivity, and environmental improvements are jeopardized. The provisions of a product standard should be no more stringent than necessary to avoid excessive or inefficient material or energy use.

The environmental provisions in product standards can incorporate considerations including material and energy inputs; wastes and emissions; impacts from transportation, packaging, distribution, and use; reuse and recycling potential; and product disposal and associated wastes. Impact can be assessed using LCA, risk assessment, or other appropriate methods, provided that the method is appropriate to the product or service and that the data are available for conducting the assessment.

Resource conservation, pollution prevention, and design for environment are three strategies that can be used in product standards to protect the environment. Each has unique contributions to make to environmental protection. Resource conservation focuses on preventing depletion of resources, which ensures the resource for future use. Renewable resources can be replenished if managed carefully. Nonrenewable resources present different challenges. Recycling and waste minimization are two strategies that can be used to preserve these resources and extend them as much as possible. Pollution prevention utilizes strategies such as source reduction and material substitution to reduce emissions to the environment. Pollution prevention can result in numerous financial benefits, including lower cleanup and disposal costs, reduced cost for pollution control equipment and its operation, insurance savings, and many others. Design for environment considers potential environmental impacts which is established by conducting Failure Mode and Effect analysis (FMEA).

4. IMPACT ON INTERNATIONAL TRADE

The objectives of ISO in bringing ISO 1400 series inter alia was to facilitate international trade by reducing non-tariff barriers to trade. But whether these standards will create a barrier or facilitate trade will depend how these standards are implemented. It has been acknowledge that the ISO 1400 series has a potential to have negative impact on international trade if unilateral environmental management system and environmental labelling schemes are insisted upon trading partners in different countries.

The industry are now beginning to experience the pressure being exerted by their business partners. It seems plausible that firms in a country will find it increasingly difficult to do business in other countries. In a short span of time since the publication of the series, exporters from developing countries are facing pressure from their trading partners in industrialized countries to implement an environmental management system to ISO 14001 and to become certified. If the standards become a requirement for doing business in developing countries, this will become barrier to trade for the time being. This shows that it is not the standard that will create barrier but the modalities and time factor that is likely to create potential adverse effects on trade .

There is already talk in the business circles about green and non green companies and there is already a latent pressure building on companies to go green. Many companies are getting certification to get this tag of `green', a status symbol. One of my clients in a surgical blade industry which is not a major polluting industry wants to become first company in India to have ISO 14001 certification in his sector.

In order to minimize the negative effects on trade a suggested solution is to have mutual recognition and equivalence between trade partners and cooperation among sectors such as industry, government and public sector policy makers.

5. CONCLUSIONS

The acceptance of the ISO 14000 series is spontaneous by most of the countries similar to ISO 9000 series. It is expected that very soon it will be adopted by most of the countries around the world.

The ISO series should be recognized as an instrument for successful implementation agenda 21 as most of the elements of the agenda are directed towards better environmental management. To enhance worldwide harmonization process all member countries of the United Nations should accept the ISO 14000 series as common denominators for environmental management to attain sustainable development.

6. REFERENCES

1. Sohrab; ISO 14000 Standards for Environment Management System, NITIE, Udyog Pragati,Oct-Dec,1996,India.
2. Ingrid Ritchi and William Hayese, A guide for Implementation of the ISO 14000 Series on Environmental Management; Prentice Hall, upper Sddle River, New Jersey.
3. Sohrab, ISO 9000 and Environmental Management System, Quality Quest,Vol.5.NO.1,Jan,1996
4. Mostafa K. Tolba and OsamaA. El-kholy, The World Environment 1972-1992- Two Decades of Challenge; Chapman & Hall, London.
5. Agenda 21 and Challenges for Asia and the Pacific: Economic and Social commission for Asia and the Pacific; United Nations New York,1997.
6. Implications of International standards for Quality and Environmental management systems; Survey results 1997; United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) in Cooperation with International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and International Trade centre (ITC).
7. ISO 14000 Environmental Management Standards and implications for Exporters to Developed Markets, Private sector Development Programme; UNDP; New York 1996;
8. Our Common Future; The Brundtland Commission Report, 1987.



BOX 2

* Chief Executive Quality Care , former Director In charge of ISO 9000 Certification in
Bureau of Indian Standards New Delhi